Стили оформления внутритекстовых ссылок: примеры в форматах APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago и Vancouver
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Как оформить ссылку внутри текста научной работы на английском языке? Использовать квадратные скобки или круглые? Когда нужно указывать всех авторов источника, а когда достаточно добавить et al.? Нужны ли сноски (footnotes) в стиле APA или MLA? Всегда ли нужно указывать номер страницы? И как вообще оформлять цитаты в разных стилях на английском языке?
Когда сталкиваешься с оформлением цитат не по ГОСТу возникает вагон и маленькая тележка вопросов. А ведь от правильности цитирования часто зависит судьба научной работы — опубликуют ее или отправят на бесконечное количество доработок.
Чтобы больше не сомневаться и смело цитировать источники внутри текста по правилам, читайте статью и пользуйтесь примерами оформления в разных стилях от APA до Vancouver.
1. Стиль APA: правила цитирования внутри текста
В APA внутритекстовые ссылки указывают в формате автор-дата. Например (Lennon, 1989). Обратите внимание, когда вы упоминаете мысли из другой работы или ссылаетесь на источник, но при этом не используете прямую цитату из него, номер страницы в скобках указывать не нужно.
Однако если вы цитируете другую работу, то в скобках необходимо указать страницу, с которой была взята фраза. Используйте “p.” для одной страницы и “pp.” для диапазона страниц. Например, (Lennon, 1989, p. 168) или (Lennon, 1989, pp. 168-171).
В таблице ниже вы можете посмотреть примеры внутритекстовых ссылок для источников разного типа:
| Тип источника | Пример оформления в APA | Примечание |
| Один автор | As Lennon (1989) stated, “It is not an easy task to cite in APA style” (p. 199). He stated that “it is not an easy task to cite in APA” (Lennon, 1989, p. 188). | |
| Два автора | Lennon and Cage (2018) state that “APA style is difficult for citing” (p. 188). They stated, “APA style is difficult for citing”(Lennon & Cage, 2018, p. 188). | В скобках вместо and ставят &. |
| Три, четыре или пять авторов | Первое упоминание: Lennon, Cage, and Andrews (2019) (Lennon, Cage, & Andrews, 2019) Дальнейшие упоминания: (Lennon et al., 2017). | |
| Шесть и более авторов | Lennon et al. (2019) (Lennon et al., 2019) | Указывают лишь имя первого автора. |
| Автор неизвестен | (A Guide to Translation, 2017). (“A Guide to Translation”, 2017). | Указывают первые несколько слов из названия источника. Как правило, это заголовок. Курсивом выделяют названия книг, журналов и прочих “целых” источников. В кавычках пишут названия разделов, глав, статей — то есть частей целого. |
| Работы одного и того же автора одного и того же года | (Lennon, 2017a). (Lennon, 2017b). | В списке литературы также следует указать “букву” источника (a, b, c, etc.). |
| Ссылка на несколько работ разных лет одного автора | Lennon (2003, 2007, 2009). (Lennon, 2003, 2007, 2009). | |
| Ссылка на разные работы разных авторов | (Lennon & Cage, 2009; Lewis & Clark, 2017). | Источники располагают в алфавитном порядке по фамилии первого автора и разделяют точкой с запятой. |
| Группа или организация | Первое упоминание: (International Translating Organization [ITO], 2019). Последующие упоминания: (ITO, 2019). | Сокращение или использование аббревиатур необязательно, скорее, по желанию. |
| Цитирование в книге другого автора | Lennon (1999) as cited in Cage (2008)… (Lennon, 1999, as cited in Cage, 2008). | Первым указывается автор оригинальной цитаты, а затем тот, кто процитировал его в своей работе. |
| Источник с неизвестной датой | (Lennon, n.d.) | |
| Веб-страница с автором | (Hagrid, 2020) | |
| Веб-страница без автора, но принадлежащая определенной организации | (World Health Association, 2019) | |
| Веб-страница с неизвестной датой публикации | World Health Association (n.d.) (World Health Association, n.d.) |
Важный момент, который часто упускают из виду — это кавычки, заглавные буквы и выделение курсивом названий в ссылках на источники внутри текста. Для таких случаев также есть ряд правил цитирования в APA-стиле:
Например: Natural-Born, “Translation: The Rules and Mistakes”.
И последний нюанс — длинные цитаты. Цитата, которая состоит из более чем 40 слов, должна быть оформлена отдельным блоком после сигнальной фразы с новой строки без кавычек и с отступом слева как для красной строки. Междустрочный интервал в цитате — двойной. После цитаты ставится точка и в скобках указывают номер страницы, с которой ее взяли.
Для наглядности можете использовать пример оформления цитаты в APA стиле:
2. Стиль MLA: как цитировать источники внутри научной работы
Основное отличие формата MLA от стиля APA — в скобках указывают не год издания, а страницу, цитата из которой была использована в работе. Поэтому этот стиль внутритекстовых ссылок называют “автор-страница”.
Правила оформления для различных источников в стиле MLA выглядят следующим образом:
| Тип источника | Пример оформления в APA | Примечание |
| Один автор | Jackson found that the most important thing about translation is… (167). It was found that the most important thing about translation is… (Jackson 167). | Между именем автора и страницей в источнике не ставятся знаки препинания. |
| Два автора | Jackson and Bruce found that the most important thing about translation is… (167). It was found that the most important thing about translation is… (Jackson and Bruce 167). | Между именами авторов используют только союз and. |
| Три и более авторов | (Jackson et al. 167) | |
| Автор неизвестен | (“Bridge to Britain” 3) (Bridge to Britain 67) | В кавычки берут названия коротких материалов, например, статей, а курсивом выделяют большие произведения или труды, например, книги, пьесы, диссертации и т.д. |
| Работы одного и того же автора | In her first book, Margareth Nixon described… (The Black Prince 88), while in her further work, she told… (Lake of Hope 276)… | В скобках указывают названия работ и страницы, на которые ссылаются. |
| Ссылка на разные работы разных авторов | (Lennon and Cage, 102; Lewis and Clark, 76). | Источники разделяются точкой с запятой. |
| Цитирование в книге другого автора | (qtd. in Ulrich 45). | |
| Авторы с одинаковой фамилией | (L. Simmons 34), (J. Simmons 143) |
Если работа или произведение упоминается в тексте научной статьи, то все слова в названии, кроме служебных частей речи, пишут с заглавной буквы и выделяют курсивом.
Длинные фрагменты цитируемого текста также, как и в APA, выносят отдельным блоком и выделяют отступом слева. В конце цитаты в скобках указывают страницу и автора, если его имени не было в сигнальной фразе, открывающей цитату.
3. Стиль Harvard: как ссылаться и цитировать источники внутри текста научной работы
С форматом цитирования Harvard все не так однозначно, как с предыдущими стилями. Например, одни руководства предписывают разделять имена нескольких авторов источника союзом and, в других же можно увидеть значок &. Некоторые рекомендуют выделять et al. курсивом, другие — нет.
Чтобы не наделать ошибок, рекомендуем внимательно изучить работы, которые уже опубликованы в том журнале, в котором вы хотите разместить свой труд.
Мы же приведем самые распространенные способы оформления источников внутри текста работы в стиле Harvard — все же основные правила остаются едиными для всех руководств:
| Тип источника | Пример оформления в APA | Примечание |
| Один автор | Lennocks (2017, p. 78) states… (Lennocks, 2017, p.78). | Стиль Harvard требует указывать и автора, и год издания, и страницу или диапазон страниц цитируемого источника. Если нужно указать диапазон страниц, вместо p. указывайте pp. |
| Два или три автора | Lennocks, Lewis and Turner (2017, pp. 15-17) state… (Lennocks, Lewis and Turner, 2017, pp. 15-17). | Запятая перед союзом and не ставится. |
| Четыре и более авторов | Lennocks et al (2018, p. 16) state… (Lennocks et al, 2017, p. 16). | Некоторые руководства рекомендуют ставить точку после al. Поэтому внимательно изучайте редполитику или уже опубликованные работы. |
| Автор неизвестен | (Interesting facts about cells, 2017, pp. 167-169). | Вместо имени автора можно указывать название организации, которой принадлежит цитируемая работа или название работы, выделенное курсивом и с заглавной буквы только для первого слова (в названии организации все слова кроме служебных пишутся с заглавной буквы). |
| Работы одного автора одного года | Lewis (2017a, p. 17) (Lewis, 2017b, p. 145). | |
| Несколько работ разных авторов | (Lewis, 2019, p. 34; Spencer and Kraig, 2018, pp. 56-57; Billings, 2009, p. 13). | |
| Источник без даты выхода | (James, no date, p. 15). | |
| Источник, процитированный в другом источнике | Thomas (2001, cited in Richards, 2016, p. 145) (Thomas, 2001, cited in Richards, 2016, p. 145). | |
| Веб-страница | (https://www.еtrs-ways-to-translate-article, 2019) | Если у веб-страницы нет ни автора, ни заголовка, то можно указать URL. |
В формате Harvard, как и в APA и MLA, прямые цитаты, состоящие более чем из 50 слов или двух предложений, выделяют отступом слева и сигнальной фразой перед цитатой.
4. Стиль Chicago: оформление внутритекстовых цитат
Оформление внутритекстовых ссылок в стиле Chicago имеет два варианта:
Сноски чаще встречаются в гуманитарных науках, а формат автор-дата — скорее, признак точных наук. В любом случае, прежде чем выбирать один из вариантов, лучше уточнить у редактора, какой именно формат оформления требуется конкретно в этом журнале.
Обратите внимание, что при использовании формата автор-дата в конце работы должен быть Reference List. Напарник для сносок — Bibliography.
Поскольку стиль Chicago в формате автор-дата во многом совпадает со стилем Harvard, мы не будем приводить полный разбор каждого типа источника. Вместо этого представим примеры оформления в Chicago и отличия от предыдущих стилей:
Что же касается формата сносок, то здесь нужно разобрать правила более подробно.
4.1 Оформление в стиле Chicago со сносками
Сноски можно оформлять двумя способами:
Чтобы сделать сноску используйте надстрочный формат шрифта. Разместите сноску в конце фразы или предложения, в которой использовали цитату, после пунктуационного знака. Например: Johnson stated that “some cells have unique structure”. 1
Сноски могут быть короткими и длинными:
Длинные сноски нужны только в работах без библиографии (поскольку библиография не всегда является обязательной в стиле Chicago). В этом случае, если вы цитируете источник более одного раза, первый раз укажите полные данные, а во все последующие можете ограничиться короткими сносками.
Вот как выглядит длинная сноска и последующие короткие:
В таблице ниже вы можете посмотреть примеры оформления полных и коротких ссылок в формате Chicago:
| Тип источника | Полная ссылка | Короткая ссылка |
| Веб-сайт | Liza Methews, “How to Translate Books,” Translation Family, May 15, 2018, https://www.translation-family.com | Methews, “How to Translate Books” |
| Книга | Andrew Morton, 10 Great habits to Stop Smoking, 3rd ed. (New York: My Publisher, 1999), 75–89. | Morton, 10 Great Habits, 15. |
| Раздел книги | Henry James, “How to Become Successful Man,” in Good Advice for Every Day, ed. Norman Reedus (London: My Publisher, 2010), 98. | James, “How to Become,” 98. |
| Статья в журнале | Robert Nice, “Free Trials and Behavioral Dysfunction,” Journal of Marketing Research 62, no. 5 (2018): 117, www.jmag.org/stable/34578756. | Nice, “Free Trials,” 117. |
Если у источника два или три автора, то их фамилии разделяют запятой, например: 1. Smith, Thompson, and Ulrich, “Supernatural Nature,” 143-145.
Если авторов от четырех и более, то после фамилии первого из них указывают et al. Например: Smith et al., “Supernatural Nature”, 143-145.
Прежде чем выбрать, какой формат стиля Chicago использовать (автор-дата или сноски), узнайте у редактора о требованиях в журнале. Уточните нужна ли библиография, какой вид сносок использовать и внимательно изучите опубликованные работы. Так вы подстрахуте себя от возвратов работы, массы правок и отказа в публикации.
5. Стиль Vancouver: как оформить ссылку на источник внутри научной работы
В списке литературы, расположенном в конце работы, все источники указывают в том порядке, в котором они были упомянуты в тексте. Нумерация источников обязательна.
После цитаты внутри работы следует указать номер источника. И все. Никаких фамилий, года публикации и названий работ в стиле Vancouver не требуется. В этом его главное отличие от других стилей оформления цитат в научной работе.
Однако простота оформления вовсе не означает полное отсутствие правил:
На практике оформление ссылок на источники в стиле Vancouver выглядит так:
…as one author has put it “the greatest days were waiting for us ahead”.(1)
..as one author has put it “the greatest days were waiting for us ahead”.[1]
..as one author has put it “the greatest days were waiting for us ahead”. 1
Если в текст вводится имя автора, ссылку можно поставить после него:
Хотя стиль Vancouver не предусматривает указание других данных, кроме номера источника, если вам критично важно обозначить страницу, с которой была взята цитата, то можно это сделать так:
…as one author has put it “the greatest days were waiting for us ahead”.(1 p45)
..as one author has put it “the greatest days were waiting for us ahead”. 1 (p25)
Stevens (1 p25-26) agreed…
Если в предложении процитированы более одного источника, их номера указывают через запятую или дефис, например (1, 5, 8-10).
Заключение
На оформление внутритекстовых ссылок и цитат в разных стилях ученые тратят огромное количество времени, и все равно допускают ошибки. Поэтому мы рекомендуем тщательно выверять каждую букву и знак препинания.
Хотя основные требования к цитированию и оформлению списка литературы в стилях APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago и Vancouver (о котором у нас есть отдельная подробная статья) во многих изданиях совпадают, случаются и отклонения от нормы. Так что, прежде чем приступать к оформлению, советуем внимательно прочитать требования журнала и изучить уже опубликованные работы.
Не возлагайте больших надежд на генераторы сервисов автоматического оформления цитат и ссылок на источники. По опыту знаем — они делают массу ошибок, исправлять которые ничуть не проще, чем оформлять внутритекстовые ссылки и References вручную. Лучше потренироваться, набить руку или обратиться к профессионалам. Тогда вы точно будете уверены, что ваша работа оформлена по всем правилам.
MLA Format: Everything You Need to Know Here
Published October 31, 2011. Updated October 13, 2021.
Welcome to an overview of “What is MLA Format?” in relation to paper formatting. You’ll find in-depth guidelines, examples, and visual samples to help you easily format your paper. This guide does not serve as a reference for MLA citation format.
For help determining the proper structure for citing, refer to the other guides on EasyBib.com. Here is another informative site which may help with further understanding of MLA citation format.
MLA Paper Formatting Basics
These guidelines come from the MLA Style Center’s web page “Formatting a Research Paper.”
MLA Guide Overview
There are various sections in this guide. Each section provides an in-depth overview of the different components to keep in mind when developing an MLA paper.
This guide includes the following sections:
If you need more guidance, a website like EasyBib.com usually has guides and tools to help you out. There’s also resources on other styles, like our guide on “APA reference page”, otherwise known as a “References” page.
MLA Format Background
The Modern Language Association (MLA) is an organization responsible for developing MLA format. It was developed as a means for researchers, students, and scholars in the literature and language fields to uniformly format their papers and assignments. This uniform, or consistent, method to developing a paper or assignment allows for easy reading. Today, MLA is not only used in literature and language subject areas; many others have adopted it as well.
The Modern Language Association released the 9th and most current edition of their MLA Handbook in April 2021. The Handbook provides thorough instructions on citing, as well as guidelines for submitting work that adheres to the Modern Language Association’s rules and standards. Although we’re not affiliated with the MLA, our citation specialists bring you this thoughtful and informative guide on the format.
Looking for information about previous editions to the Handbook? Want to learn more about the origin of “What is MLA format?” Click here to learn about the previous editions to the Handbook.
Actually, are you looking for help on using another style? See how to cite an APA journal, learn to create an APA book citation, and more!
Formatting the Header in MLA
To create a header for your first page, follow these steps:
General Paper Formatting
Paper Choice
While many professors, instructors, and publications allow electronic submission, some prefer printed, hard copies of papers. This section focuses on the type of paper to use for printed submission.
If you choose to print your paper, use white paper only. Do not use ivory, off-white, or any other shades or colors.
Choose a standard, high quality paper to print your project on. Do not use cardstock. It is not necessary to use resum é paper. Use typical, high quality printer or copy paper.
When it comes to size, 8 ½-by-11-inch paper is the recommended size. If you’d like to use a different size, ask your teacher prior to submission.
Use One-Inch Margins in MLA
Use one-inch margins around the entire page. The running head should be the only item seen in the one inch margin (see below for more on running heads).
Most word processing programs automatically default to using one inch margins. Check the page settings section of the program to locate the margin size.
Indenting Paragraphs in MLA
Indent the first word in every paragraph. Sentences should begin one half inch from the left margin.
It is not necessary to manually measure half an inch. Use the “tab” button on the keyboard to create a half inch space.
Double Space Paragraphs in MLA
MLA research paper format requires that the entire research paper or MLA format essay includes double-spaced lines. Double-spaced lines should be found in between the written body of the work, in the heading, and also on the MLA reference page.
While it may seem tempting to place a few extra lines between the heading, title, and beginning of the paper, lines should all be double spaced.
Font and Font Size in MLA
In an MLA paper, it is acceptable to use any font type that is easy to read. Many source types, such as books and articles, use fonts that are easy to read, so if you’re seeking an appropriate font style, look at other sources for guidance. Two of the most commonly used fonts are Arial and Times New Roman.
It is important for the reader to be able to distinguish the difference between italicized and regular font, so if you choose a font style different than Arial or Times New Roman, make sure the difference between the two type styles is evident.
The use of a 12-point font size is recommended as this is the default size for many word processing programs. It is acceptable to use another standard size, such as 11-point or 11.5-point.
Binding
Some professors or instructors will provide guidance on how to secure hard copies of projects. If your instructor does not provide you with any expectations or guidance, a simple staple in the top left corner should suffice. If a stapler is not available, some instructors allow paper or binder clips.
Do not fold the top left corner down to secure the pages together. The page could easily unfold, causing a mess of papers. While binders and plastic holders are cute, in reality, they add bulk to a professor or instructor who may like to take the papers home for grading purposes. Keep the binding simple and clean. Staples work best, and binder and paper clips are the next best option.
As always, follow any instructions your professor or teacher may provide. The guidelines found here are simply recommendations.
MLA Heading & Title Page Instructions
The web page “Formatting a Research Paper” gives two options when it comes to creating the header for your project:
If choosing option one, creating an MLA heading, you’ll need to include four main components:
The first item typed on the paper should be your full name.
The assignment’s title should be placed below the due date, after a double space. Align the title so it sits in the center of the MLA format paper. The title should be written in standard lettering, without underlines, bold font, italicized font, or any quotation marks. Only include italics or quotation marks if your title includes the title of another source.
Here is an example of an MLA header for an MLA format essay, paper, or assignment:
The Trials and Tribulations of Lincoln’s Reciting of “The Gettysburg Address”
*Note: The quotation marks here are around the title of a speech included in the paper’s title.
Title Page
Most research papers use a standard MLA format heading, like the one seen above. If your instructor requires you to create a standalone title page, ask him or her for specifications. MLA does not have specific instructions for developing an MLA title page. We recommend you use an MLA header for your project.
If your teacher or professor requires a standalone title page, but has not provided any guidance or specifications, here are a few suggestions from EasyBib.com and this MLA guide:
Click additional information about essays to see an example of a formatted header.
You can either create a title page using the EasyBib Title Page creator or omit the title page completely and use a header.
Running Head & Page Numbers in MLA
A running head is a brief heading that is placed in the top right corner of every page in a project. The Modern Language Association Style Center (online) states that the running head consists of:
General tips to keep in mind:
Before adding this information manually onto every single page, check to see if the word processor you’re using has the capability to automatically add this information for you. Try looking in the settings area where page numbers or headers can be added or modified.
Google Docs: Adding a header
Microsoft Word Document: Adding a header
Quotations in MLA
Quotes are added into assignments to help defend an argument, prove a point, add emphasis, or simply liven up a project.
Quotes should not take up the majority of your paper or assignment. Quotes should be sprinkled sparingly throughout. Use direct quotes from outside sources to enhance and expand on your own writing and ideas.
Words from quotes belong to the individual who spoke or wrote them, so it is essential to credit that individual’s work. Credit him or her by adding what is called an “in-text citation” into the body of the project.
There are three ways to add quotes:
1. With the author’s name in the sentence (a citation in prose).
Dan Gutman shares a glimpse into the overall plot by stating, “I didn’t know it at the time, but a baseball card—for me—could function like a time machine” (5).
In the above example, Dan Gutman is the author of the book that this quote is pulled from.
2. Without the author’s name in the sentence (a parenthetical citation).
The main character’s confusing experience is realized and explained when he states “I didn’t know it at the time, but a baseball card—for me—could function like a time machine” (Gutman 5).
In the above example, Dan Gutman’s name isn’t included in the sentence. It’s included in the parentheses at the end of the sentence. This is an example of a proper MLA style citation in the body of a project.
3. In a block quote, which is used when a large quote, of 4 lines or more, is added into a project.
Using footnotes and endnotes
The Modern Language Association generally promotes the use of references as described in the sections above, but footnotes and endnotes are also acceptable forms of references to use in your paper.
Footnotes and endnotes are helpful to use in a variety of circumstances. Here are a few scenarios when it may seem appropriate to use this type of referencing:
To include a footnote or endnote, add a superscript number at the end of the sentence the footnote or endnote refers to. They can be included mid-sentence if necessary, but be sure to add it after any punctuation, such as commas or periods. Find a location that doesn’t distract the reader from the content and flow of the paper.
Within the text example:
Numerous well-known children’s books include characters from a wide range of races and ethnicities, thus promoting diversity and multiculturalism.¹
At the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of the section (endnote):
¹See Isadora, Parr, and Velazquez. While Parr’s work features characters of various colors, such as pink or blue, children easily correlate it with individuals of different races and ethnicities.
On the last page of the assignment, the writer includes the full references for the books by Isadora, Parr, and Velazquez.
For more on block quotes and a further, detailed explanation on the use of quotes, including MLA footnotes, refer to our MLA In-Text Citation and Parenthetical Citations Guide. In this guide you’ll find further information including directions for the use of quotes without an author, page numbers, and how to properly credit work from electronic sources.
For guides on citations in another style, check out APA parenthetical citation and APA in-text citation.
Paraphrases in MLA
Paraphrases are created when text or speech from another source are added into a project, but the writer chooses to summarize them and weave in his or her own writing and writing style.
Even though the writer modifies the information from another source, it is still necessary to credit the source using proper format (Handbook 98). Paraphrased information uses the same MLA reference format as stated in the section directly above this one.
Here is an acceptable paraphrase:
“Stay hungry. Stay foolish.” Steve Jobs
Steve Jobs encouraged students at Stanford to continue with their determination, drive, and ambitious behavior. They should never be simply satisfied with the status quo. They should continue to push themselves despite possible obstacles and failures.
To develop a well-written paraphrase, follow these simple, step-by-step instructions.
Wondering if it’s better to quote or paraphrase?
An essential part of the research process involves adding direct quotes and paraphrases into projects. Direct quotes provide word-for-word evidence and allow writers to use another author’s eloquent words and language in their own projects. When it comes to paraphrases, writers are able to take a block of text and shrink the scope of it into the their papers. Paper writers can also use paraphrases to demonstrate their ability to analyze and reiterate information in a meaningful and relevant way.
If you’re wondering which one is better to consistently use, quotes or paraphrases, there’s a clear winner. Paraphrases come out on top. Sure, direct quotes are incredibly beneficial, but copying and pasting too many of these into a project can cause a reader to lose sight of the writer’s own voice. Mixing your own voice with another author’s too much can make for choppy and disjointed reading.
The ultimate goal of a research project is to have your voice and research merged together as one. Paraphrases allow just that. When you combine information from outside sources with your own writing style, it demonstrates your ability as a researcher to showcase your understanding and analyzation of a topic.
Remember, whether you’re adding direct quotes or paraphrases into a project, both types of additions need references. References are placed after the quotes and paraphrases, and also at the end of an assignment.
If you’re looking for additional help with your punctuation or grammar, check out the EasyBib plagiarism checker!
Using Abbreviations in MLA
Abbreviations are commonly used in many source types including websites, blog posts, books, and journal articles. It is acceptable to use abbreviations in all of these sources.
When it comes to school and research assignments, however, the MLA Handbook states that abbreviations should be used rarely in the prose of your paper (293). Spelling out abbreviations into their full words and meanings is recommended. This ensures understanding and avoids any confusion from your reader.
There are times when you may feel it is perfectly acceptable to use an abbreviation rather than its typed out counterpart in a paper. If you do abbreviate, be sure you are using commonly accepted abbreviations, which you can find in the dictionary. You can also review Appendix 1 in the MLA Handbook.
General Abbreviation Tips
Abbreviating Months
Type out entire month names when being used in the body of a research paper or assignment.
She rented out the beach house from May through September
When it comes to references, MLA bibliography format requires months longer than four letters to be abbreviated.
Other abbreviations that are perfectly acceptable to use in a bibliography (not the body of a project) include:
Again, these abbreviations should only be used in the final page(s) of a project, the MLA Works Cited list. They should not be used in the body of a project.
For more information on bibliographies, see our MLA format Works Cited List page.
Abbreviating Publishers
One of the quirkiest things about this particular style is how publisher names are structured on the final page of references. Certain words are abbreviated, some words are omitted, and other words are written in full.
Words describing what type of business the publisher is are omitted from the works cited. Here’s a breakdown of the words that should be excluded:
If a publisher’s name contains the words “University” and “Press” (or the equivalent in another language), the words should be abbreviated to the letters “U” and “P” in your citation. But if only one of the words appears, it should be written out normally.
Here are a few examples:
All other words related to the names of publishers should be written out in full.
Abbreviating Titles
Certain classical and biblical works are abbreviated in a bibliography, but also in any parenthetical references in the text.
The official handbook provides a lengthy list, spanning over multiple pages, of the preferred abbreviations to use for classical and biblical works (Handbook 295-301), but here’s a quick snapshot of some of the commonly used ones:
Hebrew Bible or Old Testament = OT
Again, the titles above are allowed to be abbreviated both in references in parentheses in the body of a project and also on the final page of references. If you’re wondering why, it’s because they’re cited often and it’s unnecessary to type out the entire title names.
Formatting Numbers in MLA
Use of Numerals
If the project calls for frequent use of numbers (such as a scientific study or statistics), use numerals that precede measurements.
Other items to keep in mind:
In divisions, use numbers, ex: In page 5 of the study
Arabic Numbers
When including a number in a paper, spell out the number if it can be written as one word (such as six) or two words (such as sixty-two). For fractions, decimals, or longer numbers, type them out using digits. For larger numbers, write the number itself (Handbook 82-84).
Here are a few examples:
If the number comes before a unit of measurement or label, type the number using digits.
More on Numbers
Starting a sentence with a number is generally frowned upon. Try modifying the sentence so that the number, or number word, is found elsewhere.
225 children were found in the warehouse, some malnourished and diseased.
A total of 225 children were found in the warehouse, some malnourished and diseased.
If modifying the sentence is not possible or does not work well with the flow of the assignment or paper, type out the written number:
Two hundred twenty five children were found in the warehouse, some malnourished and diseased.
Do not include any ISBN numbers in your paper.
Outline Format
The Modern Language Association does not have any requirements regarding the structure of an outline. If your teacher asks you to create an MLA outline, we recommend using roman numerals, capital and lowercase letters, and numbers.
Here is an example of a recommended outline structure:
In addition to outlines, use roman numerals for suffixes.
Using Images, Tables, & Musical Scores in MLA
Photographs, data sets, tables, graphs, and other images are often added into projects or papers to promote or aid understanding. They provide meaningful visuals for the reader. If the illustration or visual image does not enhance the quality of the paper, do not include it in the project.
Tables and illustrations should be placed as close as possible to the text that they most closely refer to.
Images
For an image to be significant and easily identifiable, place it as close as possible to the text in the project where it is discussed.
It is not acceptable to simply place an image in a project without including identifiable information. All images must include information about its origin.
Here are the directions to properly attribute an image:
In the text of the project or paper where the figure is discussed, include the label in parentheses to ensure the reader knows where to find the figure in your paper.
Example 1:
Sarah’s tattoo design was filled with two of her favorite flowers: lilies and daffodils along a thinly curved vine (fig. 1).
(Image Would Be Here)
Fig. 1. Sarah’s Tattoo. barneyWILLIAMSable, Deviant Art, 2011, barneywilliamsable.deviantart.com/art/Sarah-s-Tattoo-design-193048938.
Example 2:
Fig. 1. White Studio. “Houdini and Jennie, the Elephant, Performing at the Hippodrome, New York.” Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/96518833/.
Tables
When adding a table or data set into a project, it is formatted a little differently. Above the data set, include the label “Table” with an Arabic numeral, and title it. The table number and title should be located flush left and on separate lines. The first table seen in the project is labeled as Table 1. The second table in the project is Table 2, and so on. The table’s title should be written in title case form (the first letter of each word is capitalized, except for small, insignificant words).
Underneath the table, provide the source and any notes. Notes should be labeled with a letter, rather than a numeral, so the reader is able to differentiate between the notes of the text and the notes of the table.
Example 1:
International Scholars from India Enrolled at Yale University a
| Year | India | South Korea |
| 2012-2013 | 191 | 126 |
| 2013-2014 | 200 | 123 |
| 2014-2015 | 197 | 116 |
| 2015-2016 | 210 | 120 |
Source: “International Scholars Academic Year 2015-2016.” Yale University, Office of International Students and Scholars, yale.app.box.com/v/scholar-2015-2016.
a. The numbers reflect students who are enrolled full-time.
The information included above and below any images or table should be double spaced, similar to the rest of the project or paper.
Example 2:
Musical Scores
Musical scores need to be labeled as well. When including a musical score in a project, label musical scores with “Ex.” which is short for example. This label should be placed below the musical score. Next to the abbreviation “Ex.”, assign the score an Arabic numeral. The first musical score in the project should be labeled as Ex. 1. The second musical score found in an assignment should be labeled as Ex. 2., and so on.
If possible, provide a caption after to the label. If the caption below the sheet music includes enough information about the source, it is not necessary to include the full reference at the end of the assignment.
Here is an example of a possible label and caption:
Ex. 4. Scott Joplin, The Entertainer, piano, C major.
Another example:
Here’s more on tables and illustrations.
Using Lists in MLA
It’s appropriate to add lists into an MLA format essay as long as the proper rules are followed.
Lists created using MLA essay format look different than a grocery list or any other type of vertical listing of items. Items in a list are included in your prose, rather than the traditional vertical style.
Often, you will use a colon between the introductory sentence and the list. But you should not include a colon if the first item in the list is part of the sentence.
Here is an example of how a list may look incorporated into the prose of a research project or assignment:
William Shakespeare wrote numerous plays, many of which were considered tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, Julius Caesar, and King Lear.
List Example #2
Here is an example of how a list may look in a research project or assignment when the list is part of the introductory sentence:
Many of William Shakespeare’s were tragedies. Some of his most popular tragedies include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, Julius Caesar, and King Lear.
MLA Works Cited Format
EasyBib.com has a full, comprehensive guide to creating a proper works cited MLA format, but here are a few items to keep in mind when developing this portion of a project:
For more detailed information, make sure to check out the EasyBib guide to MLA format Works Cited pages.
MLA Citation Format
The majority of this guide focuses on MLA formatting in regards to MLA paper format rules and guidelines. If you’re seeking information related to the proper formatting of an MLA citation, refer to our individual pages and posts on various types of citations.
If you’re simply looking for the general structure for full references, which are found on the final pages of projects, here’s the proper order:
Author’s Last name, Author’s First name. “Title of Source.”* Title of Container, Names of other contributors along with their specific roles, version of the source (if it differs from the original or is unique), any key numbers associated with the source that aren’t dates (such as journal issue numbers or volume numbers), Name of the Publisher, publication date, location (such as the URL or page numbers).
*Note: A title may be in italics instead of quotation marks, depending of the type of source. The general rule is that works that are self-contained (like books, journals, or television shows) are formatted in italics. Works that are part of a larger work (like articles, chapters, or specific episodes) are formatting in quotation marks.
MLA Format Citing FAQs:
“What in the world are containers?”
Containers are what hold the source. If you’re creating a reference for a chapter in a book, the title of the chapter is the title of the source, and the container is the title of the book. The book holds the chapter, so it’s the container. If you’re searching for how to cite a website, here’s a tip: the title of the source is the name of the individual page and the title of the container is the name of the full website.
“This seems like a lot of information for a reference. Is it all necessary?”
The short answer is “No!” When citing, only include the components that help the reader locate the exact same source themselves.
It isn’t necessary to go digging for items such as numbers, version types, or names of other individuals or contributors associated with the source if they aren’t applicable. If you think it’s beneficial for the reader, then include it.
Related to citations, here are helpful pages on:
If you’re looking for an MLA citation generator, head to the EasyBib homepage. Our formatter will help you create citations quickly and easily!
Need APA, too? There are also EasyBib tools and an APA citation website reference guide to help you learn the basics.
Edits and Proofreading
Editing and proofreading your assignment prior to submission is an incredibly important step in the research process. Editing involves checking the paper for the following items:
Smart idea: running your paper through a paper checker before you turn it in. EasyBib Plus offers a checker that scans for grammar errors and unintentional plagiarism.
Check out our MLA sample papers. Also, check out the EasyBib MLA Annotated Bibliography Guide.
Don’t forget to use the EasyBib citation generator to develop your Modern Language Association style references.EasyBib.com also has helpful guides on APA format and more styles. Lastly, stay up-to-date on what’s coming by following our EasyBib Twitter account.
Works Cited
“Formatting a Research Paper.” The MLA Style Center, Modern Language Association of America, style.mla.org/formatting-papers/.
MLA Handbook. 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.
Published October 31, 2011. Updated July 25, 2021.
