limiting attribute что это

Attributes: descriptive and limiting

A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object or to give some additional information about it. It does not affect the use of the article:

His book, a bestseller when it was published in 1977, was adapted by Stanley Kubrick into a film starring Jack Nicholson and Shelley Duvall.

A limiting attribute points out a particular object, singles it out of the rest. Very often of-phrases are limiting attributes:

The health of millions of people may be at risk.

! but it is not always the case.

In Odessa, Ukraine, the force really has been awakened with a statue of Vladimir Lenin being converted into one of the dark lord himself, Darth Vader.

Prepositional gerundial phrases are usually limiting attributes.

Lukashenko welcomes Depardieu, who took Russian citizenship in 2013 in the hope of escaping high taxes in France.

Prepositional gerundial phrases are treated as descriptive when the head-noun is an object of the verb to have:

But Granny had a way of making us feel like each of us got something special.

Articles with semantic groups of nouns:

Articles with the names of illnesses

He had contracted acute nephritis — inflammation of the kidneys — together with high blood pressure, and his face, feet and ankles became very swollen.

BUT: to suffer a mild angina attack;

the hepatitis B virus

* In British English: toothache, earache, stomachache and backache are more oftenuncountable

* In American English: a cold, a headache, an earache, a backache, a toothache, a stomachache

Now he was looking rumpled and approachable, thin and still a little yellow-tinged after the hepatitis.

Вопрос 28

Прилагательное. Наречие

Прилагательное

Общее грамматическое значение: признак предмета, обладающий условной устойчивостью.

П. разнообразны по словообразовательной структуре. Суффиксы п.:

П образуют только степени сравнения:

— синтетические (односложные слова, двусложные слова на y,ow,er,ble)

— аналитические (все остальные)

Не все прилагательные образуют степени сравнения:

● Не образует ст.ср. качественные прил., которые обозначают абсолютное качество (blind, deal) и относительные п.

Функции прилагательных в предложении:

1. определение (в пре-/пост-позиции)

● о. в постпозиции более эмоциональное

● устойчивые о. в постпозиции: secretary general, president elect, court marshal

2. предикатив (The night was dark)

Большинство прилагательных могут употребляться в обеих функциях.

● Только атрибутивная функция: joint (совместный), live, loan, daily, weekly, monthly

● Только предикативная ф.: glad, averse (unwilling), concerned, awake, ajar, awry, asleep, alike

Различие значений прилагательного:

● a certain person/I’m certain

● ill news/ He’s ill/ It’s ill wind that blows nobody any good.

П.употребляется в функции существительного (a rich, the poor) и обозначает множество или абстрактное понятие (the unforgettable).

Наречие

Н.стали выделять в самостоятельную часть речи относительно недавно.

Обобщ.граммат.значение: передает признак действия

Н. определяет как, когда, где, при каких обстоятельствах осуществляется действие, уточняет признак, обозначаемый прилагательным.

● образа действия (strangely, sadly, hopelessly)

● меры, степени, количества (highly, enough)

● направление (Soames went downstairs)

● место (to sit downstairs)

● время (now, today, lately, once, early, presently, still)

● простые (today, well, here, now)

● омонимичные прилагательным (fast, hard, long)

● сложные (somehow, inside, upstairs)

● составные (for certain, by now, for once)

Словоизменительная характеристика: у н. есть только категория степени сравнения

● Качественные наречия сочетаются с глаголами: He had touched his horses smartly with the whip.

● Качественные наречия могут определять прилагательное: He was fast asleep.

● Наречия меры, степени, количества могут употребляться с глаголами и с прилагательными: It’s a little difficult to do it.

● Н. дают оценку всему предложению: Frankly, I’m tired., Briefly, there’s nothing more I can do about it.

● Н. выполняют соединительную функцию: I’ve talked to him several times about the matter, and yet he does nothing about it.

● deadly (смертельный, смертоносный)

Инфинитив.

Инфинитив — наиболее отвлеченная форма глагола, в основном разряде действительного залога только называющая действие. Поэтому именно эта назывная форма глагола используется для введения глагольной словарной статьи.

Инфинитив, как и остальные вербалии, может реализоваться в формах вида и залога. Для действительного залога существуют все четыре формы, для пассива —только основной разряд и перфект:

Действительный залог Пассив

То write. To be writing. To be written. To have been

To have written. To have been written, writing.

It’s extremely funny for me to be consoling you. (Snow) Office affairs are easy to start and difficult to finish, particularly in a small town. (Braine)

The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which com- bines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process. By virtue of its general process-naming function, the infinitive should be considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb. In this quality it can be likened to the nominative case of the noun in languages having a normally devel- oped noun declension, as, for instance, Russian. It is not by chance that A. A. Shakhmatov called the infinitive the «verbal nominative». With the English infinitive, its role of the verbal paradigmatic head- form is supported by the fact that, as has been stated before, it repre-

sents the actual derivation base for all the forms of regular verbs.

The infinitive is used in three fundamentally different types of functions: first, as a notional, self-positional syntactic part of the sen- tence; second, as the notional constituent of a complex verbal predi- cate built up around a predicator verb; third, as the notional constitu- ent of a finite conjugation form of the verb. The first use is grammati- cally «free», the second is grammatically «half-free», the third is grammatically «bound».

The dual verbal-nominal meaning of the infinitive is expressed in full measure in its free, independent use. It is in this use that the in- finitive denotes the corresponding process in an abstract, substance- like presentation. This can easily be tested by question- transformations. Cf.:

Do you really mean to go away and leave me here alone? → What do you really mean? It made her proud sometimes to toy with the idea. → What made her proud sometimes?

The combinability of the infinitive also reflects its dual semantic nature, in accord with which we distinguish between its verb-type and noun-type connections. The verb-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action; third, with modifying adverbs; fourth, with predicator verbs of semi-functional nature forming a verbal predicate; fifth, with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb. The noun-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action.

The self-positional infinitive, in due syntactic arrangements, per- forms the functions of all types of notional sentence-parts, i. e. the sub- ject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. Cf.: To meet the head of the administration and not to speak to him about your predicament was unwise, to say the least of it. (Infinitive sub- ject position) The chief arranged to receive the foreign delegation in the afternoon. (Infinitive object position) The parents’ wish had always been to see their eldest son the continuator of their joint scientific work. (In- finitive predicative position) Here again we are faced with a plot to over- throw the legitimately elected government of the republic. (Infinitive

attributive position) Helen was far too worried to listen to the remon- strances. (Infinitive adverbial position)

If the infinitive in free use has its own subject, different from that of the governing construction, it is introduced by the preposition-particle for. The whole infinitive construction of this type is traditionally called the «for-to infinitive phrase». Cf.: For that shy-looking young man to have stated his purpose so boldly — incredible!

The prepositional introduction of the inner subject in the English in- finitive phrase is analogous to the prepositional-casal introduction of the same in the Russian infinitive phrase (i.e. either with the help of the gen- itive-governing preposition для, or with the help of the dative case of the noun). Cf.: Для нас очень важно понять природу подобных соот- ветствий.

With some transitive verbs (of physical perceptions, mental activity, declaration, compulsion, permission, etc.) the infinitive is used in the semi-predicative constructions of the complex object and complex sub- ject, the latter being the passive counterparts of the former. Cf.:

We have never heard Charlie play his violin. → Charlie has never been heard to plan his violin. The members of the committee expected him to speak against the suggested resolution. → He was expected by the members of the committee to speak against the suggested resolution.

Due to the intersecting character of joining with the governing pre- dicative construction, the subject of the infinitive in such complexes, naturally, has no introductory preposition-particle.

The English infinitive exists in two presentation forms. One of them, characteristic of the free uses of the infinitive, is distinguished by the pre-positional marker to. This form is called traditionally the «to- infinitive», or in more recent linguistic works, the «marked infinitive». The other form, characteristic of the bound uses of the infinitive, does not employ the marker to, thereby presenting the infinitive in the shape of the pure verb stem, which in modern interpretation is understood as the zero-suffixed form. This form is called traditionally the «bare infini- tive», or in more recent linguistic works, respectively, the «unmarked infinitive».

The infinitive marker to is a word-morpheme, i.e. a special formal particle analogous, mutatis mutandis, to other auxiliary elements in the

English grammatical structure. Its only function is to build up and iden- tify the infinitive form as such. As is the case with the other analytical markers, the particle to can be used in an isolated position to represent the whole corresponding construction syntagmatically zeroed in the text. Cf.: You are welcome to acquaint yourself with any of the docu- ments if you want to.

Like other analytical markers, it can also be separated from its no- tional, i.e. infinitive part by a word or a phrase, usually of adverbial na- ture, forming the so-called «split infinitive». Cf.: My task is not to ac- cuse or acquit; my task it to thoroughly investigate, to clearly define, and to consistently systematise the facts.

Thus, the marked infinitive presents just another case of an analyti- cal grammatical form. The use or non-use of the infinitive marker de- pends on the verbal environment of the infinitive. Namely, the un- marked infinitive is used, besides the various analytical forms, with modal verbs (except the modals ought and used), with verbs of physical perceptions, with the verbs let, bid, make, help (with the latter — op- tionally), with the verb know in the sense of «experience», with a few verbal phrases of modal nature (had better, would rather, would have, etc.), with the relative-inducive why. All these uses are detailed in prac- tical grammar books.

The infinitive is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes the three grammatical categories sharing them with the finite verb, namely, the aspective category of development (continuous in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categori- al paradigm of the infinitive of the objective verb includes eight forms: the indefinite active, the continuous active, the perfect active, the perfect continuous active; the indefinite passive, the continuous passive, the per- fect passive, the perfect continuous passive. E.g.: to take — to be taking

— to have taken — to have been taking; to be taken —to be being taken — to have been taken — to have been being taken.

The infinitive paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes four forms. E.g.: to go —to be going

— to have gone — to have been going.

The continuous and perfect continuous passive can only be used oc- casionally, with a strong stylistic colouring. But they underlie the corre-

sponding finite verb forms. It is the indefinite infinitive that constitues the head-form of the verbal paradigm.

Вопрос 30.

(Инфинитив. Особенности, функции.)

Инфинитив — наиболее отвлеченная форма глагола, в основном разряде действительного залога только называющая действие. Поэтому именно эта назывная форма глагола используется для введения глагольной словарной статьи.

· Употребляется с прямым дополнением

· Может определяться наречием.

2. Глагольные черты:

· Имеет категорию залога

· Имеет категорию временной соотнесенности.

Инфинитив, как и остальные вербалии, может реализоваться в формах вида и залога. Для действительного залога существуют все четыре формы, для пассива —только основной разряд и перфект:

Действительный залог Пассив

To have written. To have been written, writing.

Инфинитив может иметь синтаксическую функцию:

1. Подлежащего: То have asked questions here would have attracted attention. It is useless to discuss a question.

2. Предикатив: To see is to believe. My intention is to get there.

3. Часть составного именного сказуемого: His house was not easy to find.

4. Дополнение: I want to tell them about it before thy discover.I find it necessary to leave this spot.

5. Сложное дополнение (complex object): I want you to do this at once.

6. Определение: There was no one to read these words. I have a lot of work to do.

7. Обстоятельство:

a) Цели : Laws were not made to be broken, laws were made to stay within.

b) Результата: I was too busy to see anyone. He was strong enough to carry this case.

c) Сравнения(образа действия): She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him.

d) Обстоятельство сопутствующих обстоятельств (of attendant circumstances): She was driven away, never to revisit her neighbourhood.

8. Часть составного глагольного сказуемого:

· Модального : The train was to leave at five o’clock. I must do it at once.

· Аспектное : We began to read.

9. Complex subject: He is believed to be a famous person.

10. Parenthesis( вводные конструкции ): To put it mildly, he was not up to be mark. To speak the truth, I’ve been a little troubled, bit it is over now.

Организация стока поверхностных вод: Наибольшее количество влаги на земном шаре испаряется с поверхности морей и океанов (88‰).

Механическое удерживание земляных масс: Механическое удерживание земляных масс на склоне обеспечивают контрфорсными сооружениями различных конструкций.

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USE OF ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS MODIFIED BY ATTRIBUTES

Descriptive attributes do not influence the use of articles. Both the definite and indefinite articles can be used with the noun modified by a descriptive attribute in accordance with the general rules of the use of articles:

A young girl entered the room.

He turned round. The young girl was following him.

A limiting attribute is used to point out a particular object or a number of objects from the other objects of the same class or kind. A noun modified by a limiting attribute is used with the definite article:

Jane was the oldest girl in our group.

Words belonging to different parts of speech can be used as limiting or descriptive attributes:

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY ADJECTIVES

— Adjectives in the superlative degree are limiting attributes;

It is the most interesting film I have ever seen.

— Adjectives same, only, very, main, principal, left, right, central, following, present, former, last, next, wrongare limiting attributes:

It is the same person. We took the wrong turn and lost our way.

Note 1: Nouns denoting time (day, week, month, year, etc.) do not take article when they are modified by the adjectives next and last in the present time context and are used in the function of the adverbial modifier of time:

They finished school last year. Next week we are going to Moscow.

Note 2: The adjective only is used as a descriptive attribute with the nouns son, daughter, child: John is an only child.

— The adjective whole and the pronoun all used as an adjective are descriptive attributes and articles with the nouns modified by them are used according to the general rules:

It took him a whole day to write this composition.

I spent the whole evening writing letters.

All people like holidays.

All the people in the room are my friends.

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY NUMERALS

— Ordinal numerals are usually used as limiting attributes:

The first day in the camp was rather boring.

Note: If an ordinal numeral means ‘another’, the noun it modifies takes the indefinite article:

She was thirsty. She drank a second glass and felt better.

— Cardinal numerals can be used as limiting attributes and take the definite article with the meaning of ‘these/those’:

I watched the people at the next table. The two men looked hostile.

We have missed the ten o’clock train and have to wait for the next one.

Note: No article is used if the cardinal numeral is used in post-position:

We are to read text 2 and to answer the questions.

ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY NOUNS

— Nouns in common case are usually descriptive attributes and articles are used according to the general rules:

The book cover was bright and attractive. A paper bag attracted her attention.

Last year we had only a two-week holiday.

Proper nouns in common case are usually limiting attributes:

The Broadway theatres are very popular.

— Nouns in genitive case can be both limiting and descriptive attributes. The article usually refers to the noun in the genitive case if the noun denotes a particular person or thing and both articles can be used:

A child’s toy lay on the grass. I don’t like the child’s behaviour.

The noun in the genitive case denoting qualitative relations or of the nouns denoting time, space or weight is a descriptive attribute and the article refers to the head-noun:

We don’t have to wear a student’s uniform.

The student’s uniform at Oxford hasn’t changed.

The lake is not very far; it’s just a two miles’ walk.

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Ограничивающие (лимитирующие) и описательные определения

Выбор артик­ля обу­слов­лен типом опре­де­ле­ния, с кото­рым упо­треб­ле­но суще­стви­тель­ное. Поэто­му важ­но знать, какие есть опи­са­тель­ные и лими­ти­ру­ю­щие опре­де­ле­ния в англий­ском язы­ке и какой артикль с ними необ­хо­ди­мо использовать.

Описательные и ограничивающие определения

Огра­ни­чи­ва­ю­щие опре­де­ле­ния ука­зы­ва­ют на такое каче­ство или харак­те­ри­сти­ку пред­ме­та, кото­рые выде­ля­ют его сре­ди других.

При нали­чии огра­ни­чи­ва­ю­ще­го опре­де­ле­ния исчис­ля­е­мые суще­стви­тель­ные име­ют опре­де­лен­ный артикль:

Опи­са­тель­ные опре­де­ле­ния дают допол­ни­тель­ную инфор­ма­цию о пред­ме­те или поня­тии, не выде­ляя этот пред­мет или поня­тие из дру­гих, им подобных.

He made her (Он сде­лал ей) a present (пода­рок)

Опи­са­тель­ные опре­де­ле­ния при исчис­ля­е­мых суще­стви­тель­ных в выбо­ре артик­ля не участвуют.

При опи­са­тель­ном опре­де­ле­нии исчис­ля­е­мое суще­стви­тель­ное может иметь опре­де­лен­ный или неопре­де­лен­ный артикль. Срав­ни­те:

Опре­де­ле­ние white может опус­кать­ся в пред­ло­же­нии без ущер­ба для смыс­ла. На выбор артик­ля вли­я­ет в пер­вом слу­чае необ­хо­ди­мость назвать новый пред­мет, во вто­ром – нали­чие лими­ти­ру­ю­ще­го опре­де­ле­ния (opposite the church).

Прилагательные

Опре­де­ле­ния, кото­рые все­гда явля­ют­ся ограничивающими

Опре­де­ле­ния, выра­жен­ные при­ла­га­тель­ны­ми в пре­вос­ход­ной степени:

Опре­де­ле­ния, выра­жен­ные име­на­ми соб­ствен­ны­ми в общем падеже:

При­ла­га­тель­ное only исполь­зу­ет­ся как опи­са­тель­ное опре­де­ле­ние сло­вам daughter, son, child:

Местоимение such

Место­име­ние all:

Количественные числительные

That morning I found three letters in my mailbox. – В то утро я нашел три пись­ма в поч­то­вом ящике.

I corrected the three mistakes I had made in the test. – Я испра­вил три ошиб­ки, кото­рые сде­лал в контрольной.

Местоимение other

В боль­шин­стве слу­ча­ев опре­де­ле­ния ста­но­вят­ся огра­ни­чи­ва­ю­щи­ми или опи­са­тель­ны­ми в зави­си­мо­сти от контекста.

Осо­бые труд­но­сти пред­став­ля­ют такие опре­де­ле­ния, как Место­име­ние other.

Если это место­име­ние отно­сит­ся к суще­стви­тель­но­му в един­ствен­ном чис­ле и име­ет­ся толь­ко два таких пред­ме­та, то упо­треб­ля­ет­ся опре­де­лен­ный артикль:

При нали­чии трех и более оди­на­ко­вых пред­ме­тов упо­треб­ля­ет­ся неопре­де­лен­ный артикль, кото­рый пишет­ся слит­но с местоимением:

Суще­стви­тель­ное во мно­же­ствен­ном чис­ле с место­име­ни­ем other в зна­че­нии «осталь­ные» при опре­де­ле­нии извест­но­го чис­ла лиц или пред­ме­тов упо­треб­ля­ет­ся с опре­де­лен­ным артиклем:

Суще­стви­тель­ное во мно­же­ствен­ном чис­ле, обо­зна­ча­ю­щее неуста­нов­лен­ное чис­ло лиц или пред­ме­тов и опре­де­ля­ю­ще­е­ся место­име­ни­ем other, упо­треб­ля­ет­ся с нуле­вым артик­лем:

Порядковые числительные

Если опре­де­ле­ния, выра­жен­ные поряд­ко­вы­ми чис­ли­тель­ны­ми, отно­сят­ся стро­го к поряд­ку сле­до­ва­ния пред­ме­тов, то они тре­бу­ют упо­треб­ле­ния опре­де­лен­но­го артик­ля с существительным.

Опре­де­ле­ние, выра­жен­ное поряд­ко­вым чис­ли­тель­ным со зна­че­ни­ем «дру­гой», «еще один», явля­ет­ся опи­са­тель­ным (поря­док сле­до­ва­ния пред­ме­тов здесь несу­ще­стве­нен), и перед ним мож­но поста­вить неопре­де­лен­ный артикль:

Артикль не упо­треб­ля­ет­ся, если за суще­стви­тель­ным сле­ду­ет коли­че­ствен­ное чис­ли­тель­ное со зна­че­ни­ем поряд­ко­во­го числительного:

Open the book on Page 23. – Открой кни­гу на стра­ни­це 23.

Сочетания существительных с предлогом of

Соче­та­ние of + суще­стви­тель­ное счи­та­ет­ся опи­са­тель­ным опре­де­ле­ни­ем, когда допус­ка­ет­ся суще­ство­ва­ние мно­гих пред­ме­тов опре­де­лен­но­го вида.

Огра­ни­чи­ва­ю­щи­ми будут те соче­та­ния of + суще­стви­тель­ное, кото­рые ука­зы­ва­ют на еди­нич­ность пред­ме­та или поня­тия и выра­жа­ют зна­че­ние при­над­леж­но­сти:

При нали­чии опи­са­тель­но­го опре­де­ле­ния неис­чис­ля­е­мые абстракт­ные суще­стви­тель­ные могут упо­треб­лять­ся:

Опи­са­тель­ные и лими­ти­ру­ю­щие опре­де­ле­ния в англий­ском язы­ке – это важ­ная для пони­ма­ния тема, в кото­рой необ­хо­ди­мо разо­брать­ся. Для это пона­до­бить­ся несколь­ко раз изу­чить мате­ри­ал и как мож­но боль­ше прак­ти­ко­вать­ся. И через пару недель вы дове­де­те упо­треб­ле­ние арти­клей до авто­ма­тиз­ма. Изу­чай­те в удовольствие!

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